(2.) Manufacture also arises in a way exactly the reverse of this –
 namely, by one capitalist employing simultaneously in one workshop a number
 of artificers, who all do the same, or the same kind of work, such as making
 paper, type, or needles. This is co-operation in its most elementary form.
 Each of these artificers (with the help, perhaps, of one or two apprentices),
 makes the entire commodity, and he consequently performs in succession
 all the operations necessary for its production. He still works in his
 old handicraft-like way. But very soon external circumstances cause a different
 use to be made of the concentration of the workmen on one spot, and of
 the simultaneousness of their work. An increased quantity of the article
 has perhaps to be delivered within a given time. The work is therefore
 re-distributed. Instead of each man being allowed to perform all the various
 operations in succession, these operations are changed into disconnected,
 isolated ones, carried on side by side; each is assigned to a different
 artificer, and the whole of them together are performed simultaneously
 by the co-operating workmen. This accidental repartition gets repeated,
 develops advantages of its own, and gradually ossifies into a systematic
 division of labour. The commodity, from being the individual product of
 an independent artificer, becomes the social product of a union of artificers,
 each of whom performs one, and only one, of the constituent partial operations.
 The same operations which, in the case of a papermaker belonging to a German
 Guild, merged one into the other as the successive acts of one artificer,
 became in the Dutch paper manufacture so many partial operations carried
 on side by side by numerous co-operating labourers. The needlemaker of
 the Nuremberg Guild was the cornerstone on320 which the English needle
 manufacture was raised. But while in Nuremberg that single artificer performed
 a series of perhaps 20 operations one after another, in England it was
 not long before there were 20 needlemakers side by side, each performing
 one alone of those 20 operations, and in consequence of further experience,
 each of those 20 operations was again split up, isolated, and made the
 exclusive function of a separate workman.